Updates in ClickHouse

When it comes to handling updates, analytical and transactional databases take different approaches to how they handle updates due to their underlying design philosophies and target use cases. ClickHouse is a column-oriented database which is optimized for read-heavy analytics and high throughput append-only operations. In practice, tables are often restructured to convert deletes and updates into append operations that are processed asynchronously and/or at read time, capitalizing on ClickHouse's strengths for high-throughput data ingestion. ClickHouse also supports robust update and delete operations.

This guide provides an overview of the available update methods in ClickHouse, and helps you choose the right update strategy for your workload.

Choosing an update strategy

There are two fundamental approaches to updating data in ClickHouse:

1. Using specialized table engines that handle updates through inserts
2. Using declarative updates like UPDATE ... SET or ALTER TABLE ... UPDATE statements

Within each of the two categories above, there are several ways to update data. Each has its advantages and performance characteristics and you should select the appropriate method based on your data model and the amount of data you intend to update.

When to use specialized table engines

Specialized table engines are the better choice when you have large volumes of updates, frequent row-level changes, or need to process a continuous stream of update and delete events.

The engines you will commonly encounter are:

Engine	Syntax	When to use
ReplacingMergeTree	ENGINE = ReplacingMergeTree	Use when updating large amounts of data. This table engine is optimized for data deduplication on merges.
CoalescingMergeTree	ENGINE = CoalescingMergeTree	Use when data arrives in fragments and you need column-level coalescing rather than full row replacement.
CollapsingMergeTree	ENGINE = CollapsingMergeTree(Sign)	Use when updating individual rows frequently, or for scenarios where you need to maintain the latest state of objects that change over time. For example, tracking user activity or article stats.

As MergeTree-family table engines merge data parts in the background, they offer eventual consistency, and the FINAL keyword needs to be used to ensure proper deduplication in the interim when querying the table. There are other engine types too, but these are the most commonly used ones.

When to use declarative updates

Declarative UPDATE statements can be more straightforward for simple update operations without the complexity of managing deduplication logic, but they are generally better suited for updating smaller numbers of rows, less frequently, than with specialized engines.

Method	Syntax	When to use
Lightweight updates	UPDATE [table] SET ... WHERE	Use this in most scenarios, particularly when running frequent, small UPDATEs (up to ~10% of table) as part of your application or workflows. For example, a user wants to delete their event history, and events are spread across a multi-tenant table with many users. This approach creates patch parts for immediate visibility without rewriting entire columns. It adds overhead to SELECT queries but has predictable latency.
Update mutation	ALTER TABLE [table] UPDATE	Use this when performing larger scale data management, particularly when an update aligns with your table partitioning. For example, you need to update a column of all rows within a month, in a table partitioned by month.

Updates using specialized table engines

ReplacingMergeTree

The ReplacingMergeTree deduplicates rows with the same sorting key during background merges, keeping only the latest version.

CREATE TABLE posts
(
    Id UInt32,
    Title String,
    ViewCount UInt32,
    Version UInt32
)
ENGINE = ReplacingMergeTree(Version)
ORDER BY Id

This engine is ideal for high-frequency updates to individual rows where updates are identified by a stable key. Benchmarks show it can be up to 4,700x faster than mutations for single-row updates.

To update a row, simply insert a new version with the same sorting key values and a higher version number. Older versions are removed during background merges. Since deduplication is eventual (it only happens during merges), you should use the FINAL modifier or equivalent query logic to get correct, deduplicated results. The FINAL modifier adds query overhead ranging from 21-550% depending on the data.

ReplacingMergeTree can't update sorting key values. It also supports a Deleted column for logical deletes.

Read more: ReplacingMergeTree guide | ReplacingMergeTree reference

CoalescingMergeTree

CoalescingMergeTree consolidates sparse records by keeping the latest non-null value for each column during merges. This enables column-level upserts rather than full row replacements.

CREATE TABLE electric_vehicle_state
(
    vin String, -- vehicle identification number
    last_update DateTime64 Materialized now64(), -- optional (used with argMax)
    battery_level Nullable(UInt8), -- in %
    lat Nullable(Float64), -- latitude (°)
    lon Nullable(Float64), -- longitude (°)
    firmware_version Nullable(String),
    cabin_temperature Nullable(Float32), -- in °C
    speed_kmh Nullable(Float32) -- from sensor
)
ENGINE = CoalescingMergeTree
ORDER BY vin;

This engine is designed for scenarios where data arrives in fragments from multiple sources, or where different columns are populated at different times. Common use cases include IoT telemetry from fragmented subsystems, user profile enrichment, and ETL pipelines with delayed dimensions.

When rows with the same sorting key are merged, CoalescingMergeTree keeps the latest non-null value for each column rather than replacing the entire row. Non-key columns should be Nullable for this to work as intended. As with ReplacingMergeTree, use FINAL for correct, coalesced results.

This engine is available from ClickHouse 25.6.

Read more: CoalescingMergeTree

CollapsingMergeTree

Stemming from the idea that updates are expensive but inserts can be leveraged to perform updates, CollapsingMergeTree uses a Sign column to tell ClickHouse how to handle rows during merges. If -1 is inserted for the sign column, the row will be collapsed (deleted) when paired with a matching +1 row. Rows to update are identified based on the sorting key used in the ORDER BY clause when creating the table.

CREATE TABLE user_activity
(
    UserID UInt64,
    PageViews UInt8,
    Duration UInt8,
    Sign Int8
)
ENGINE = CollapsingMergeTree(Sign)
ORDER BY UserID

-- Initial state
INSERT INTO user_activity VALUES (4324182021466249494, 5, 146, 1)

-- Cancel old row and insert new state
INSERT INTO user_activity VALUES (4324182021466249494, 5, 146, -1)
INSERT INTO user_activity VALUES (4324182021466249494, 6, 185, 1)

-- Query with proper aggregation
SELECT
    UserID,
    sum(PageViews * Sign) AS PageViews,
    sum(Duration * Sign) AS Duration
FROM user_activity
GROUP BY UserID
HAVING sum(Sign) > 0

┌──────────────UserID─┬─PageViews─┬─Duration─┐
│ 4324182021466249494 │         6 │      185 │
└─────────────────────┴───────────┴──────────┘

Unlike ReplacingMergeTree, CollapsingMergeTree allows you to modify sorting key values. It's well-suited for reversible operations with cancellation semantics, such as financial transactions or game state tracking.

Note

The approach above for updating requires your application to maintain state client-side in order to insert the cancellation row. While this is most efficient from ClickHouse's perspective, it can be complex to work with at scale. Queries also need aggregation with sign multiplication to produce correct results.

Read more: CollapsingMergeTree

Declarative updates

These methods work with tables using MergeTree family engines.

Method	Syntax	Best for	Trade-offs
Mutations	ALTER TABLE ... UPDATE	Infrequent bulk updates, well suited for when an update aligns with your table partitioning.	Heavy I/O; rewrites columns
Lightweight updates	UPDATE ... SET ... WHERE	Small updates (~0.1-10% of rows); frequent updates needing performance	Adds SELECT overhead; patch parts count toward limits

Mutations

Mutations (ALTER TABLE ... UPDATE) rewrite all parts containing rows that match the WHERE expression.

ALTER TABLE posts UPDATE AnswerCount = AnswerCount + 1 WHERE AnswerCount = 0

Mutations are I/O-heavy, rewriting all parts that match the WHERE expression. There is no atomicity to this process. Parts get substituted for mutated parts as soon as they are ready, and a SELECT query that starts executing during a mutation will see data from parts that have already been mutated along with data from parts that have not been mutated yet. You can track the state of progress via the system.mutations table.

Note

Mutations are I/O intensive and should be used sparingly as they can impact cluster SELECT performance. If mutations queue faster than they process, query performance will degrade. Monitor the queue via system.mutations.

Read more: ALTER TABLE UPDATE

On-the-fly mutations

With mutations via ALTER TABLE ... UPDATE you may have to wait for your mutations to be applied via a background process to see the changed values reflected in your queries. ClickHouse offers a way to change this behavior through "on-the-fly mutations". When on-the-fly mutations are enabled, updated rows are marked as updated immediately and subsequent SELECT queries will automatically return with the changed values.

On-the-fly mutations can be enabled for MergeTree-family tables by enabling the query-level setting apply_mutations_on_fly.

SET apply_mutations_on_fly = 1;

Example

Let's create a table and run some mutations:

CREATE TABLE test_on_fly_mutations (id UInt64, v String)
ENGINE = MergeTree ORDER BY id;

-- Disable background materialization of mutations to showcase
-- default behavior when on-the-fly mutations are not enabled
SYSTEM STOP MERGES test_on_fly_mutations;
SET mutations_sync = 0;

-- Insert some rows in our new table
INSERT INTO test_on_fly_mutations VALUES (1, 'a'), (2, 'b'), (3, 'c');

-- Update the values of the rows
ALTER TABLE test_on_fly_mutations UPDATE v = 'd' WHERE id = 1;
ALTER TABLE test_on_fly_mutations DELETE WHERE v = 'd';
ALTER TABLE test_on_fly_mutations UPDATE v = 'e' WHERE id = 2;
ALTER TABLE test_on_fly_mutations DELETE WHERE v = 'e';

Let's check the result of the updates via a SELECT query:

-- Explicitly disable on-the-fly-mutations
SET apply_mutations_on_fly = 0;

SELECT id, v FROM test_on_fly_mutations ORDER BY id;

Note that the values of the rows haven't yet been updated when we query the new table:

┌─id─┬─v─┐
│  1 │ a │
│  2 │ b │
│  3 │ c │
└────┴───┘

Let's now see what happens when we enable on-the-fly mutations:

-- Enable on-the-fly mutations
SET apply_mutations_on_fly = 1;

SELECT id, v FROM test_on_fly_mutations ORDER BY id;

The SELECT query now returns the correct result immediately, without having to wait for the mutations to be applied:

┌─id─┬─v─┐
│  3 │ c │
└────┴───┘

Performance impact

When on-the-fly mutations are enabled, mutations aren't materialized immediately but will only be applied during SELECT queries. However, please note that mutations are still being materialized asynchronously in the background, which is a heavy process.

If the number of submitted mutations constantly exceeds the number of mutations that are processed in the background over some time interval, the queue of unmaterialized mutations that have to be applied will continue to grow. This will result in the eventual degradation of SELECT query performance.

We suggest enabling the setting apply_mutations_on_fly together with other MergeTree-level settings such as number_of_mutations_to_throw and number_of_mutations_to_delay to restrict the infinite growth of unmaterialized mutations.

Support for subqueries and non-deterministic functions

On-the-fly mutations have limited support with subqueries and non-deterministic functions. Only scalar subqueries with a result that have a reasonable size (controlled by the setting mutations_max_literal_size_to_replace) are supported. Only constant non-deterministic functions are supported (e.g. the function now()).

These behaviors are controlled by the following settings:

Setting	Description	Default
mutations_execute_nondeterministic_on_initiator	If true, non-deterministic functions are executed on the initiator replica and are replaced as literals in UPDATE and DELETE queries.	false
mutations_execute_subqueries_on_initiator	If true, scalar subqueries are executed on the initiator replica and are replaced as literals in UPDATE and DELETE queries.	false
mutations_max_literal_size_to_replace	The maximum size of serialized literals in bytes to replace in UPDATE and DELETE queries.	16384 (16 KiB)

Lightweight updates

Lightweight updates use "patch parts"—special data parts containing only the updated columns and rows—rather than rewriting entire columns like traditional mutations.

UPDATE posts SET AnswerCount = AnswerCount + 1 WHERE Id = 404346

This approach uses the standard UPDATE syntax and creates patch parts immediately without waiting for merges. Updated values are immediately visible in SELECT queries through patch application, but are physically materialized only during subsequent merges. This makes lightweight updates ideal for updating a small percentage of rows (up to ~10% of the table) with predictable latency. Benchmarks show they can be up to 23x faster than mutations.

The trade-off is that SELECT queries incur overhead when applying patches, and patch parts count toward part limits. Beyond the ~10% threshold, patch-on-read overhead grows proportionally, making synchronous mutations more efficient for larger updates.

Read more: Lightweight UPDATE

On-the-fly mutations

On-the-fly mutations provide a mechanism to update rows such that subsequent SELECT queries automatically return the changed values without waiting for background processing. This effectively addresses the atomicity limitation of normal mutations.

SET apply_mutations_on_fly = 1;

SELECT ViewCount FROM posts WHERE Id = 404346

┌─ViewCount─┐
│     26762 │
└───────────┘

-- Increment the count
ALTER TABLE posts UPDATE ViewCount = ViewCount + 1 WHERE Id = 404346

-- The updated value is immediately visible
SELECT ViewCount FROM posts WHERE Id = 404346

┌─ViewCount─┐
│     26763 │
└───────────┘

Both the mutation and subsequent SELECT queries need the apply_mutations_on_fly = 1 setting enabled. The mutation conditions are stored in ClickHouse Keeper, which keeps everything in memory, and applied on-the-fly during queries.

Note that a mutation is still used to update the data—it is just not materialized immediately. The mutation will still be applied in the background as an asynchronous process and incurs the same heavy overhead as a regular mutation. The expressions that can be used with this operation are also limited (see details).

Note

On-the-fly mutations should only be used for a small number of operations—perhaps a few dozen at most. Keeper stores conditions in memory, so excessive use impacts cluster stability. Heavy Keeper load can cause session timeouts that affect unrelated tables.

Read more: On-the-fly mutations

Comparison summary

The following table summarizes query performance overhead based on benchmarks. Mutations serve as the baseline since queries run at full speed once the mutation completes and data is physically rewritten.

Method	Query slowdown	Memory overhead	Notes
Mutations	Baseline	Baseline	Full speed after completion; data physically rewritten
On-the-fly mutations	Variable	Variable	Instant visibility; performance degrades if many updates accumulate
Lightweight updates	7–18% (avg ~12%)	+20–210%	Most efficient for queries; best for updating ≤10% of table
ReplacingMergeTree + FINAL	21–550% (avg ~280%)	20–200× baseline	Must read all row versions; heaviest query overhead
CoalescingMergeTree + FINAL	Similar to ReplacingMergeTree	Similar to ReplacingMergeTree	Column-level coalescing adds comparable overhead
CollapsingMergeTree	Aggregation dependent	Aggregation dependent	Overhead depends on query complexity

More resources

If you're interested in a deep-dive of how updates in ClickHouse have evolved over time, along with benchmarking analysis, see:

• Updates in ClickHouse Part 1: Purpose-Built Engines
• Updates in ClickHouse Part 2: SQL-Style Updates
• Updates in ClickHouse Part 3: Benchmarks